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The new PMC design is here! Learn more about navigating our updated article layout. The PMC legacy view will also be available for a limited time. Federal government websites often end in. The site is secure. Here we present a clinical approach to the progressive aphasias, based on our experience of these disorders and directed at non-specialists.

We first outline a framework for assessing language, tailored to the common presentations of progressive aphasia. After outlining principles of management, we conclude with a prospect for future progress in these diseases, emphasising generic information processing deficits and novel pathophysiological biomarkers.

The online version of this article The primary progressive aphasias PPA are a diverse group of disorders that collectively present with relatively focal degeneration of the brain systems that govern language. This is not surprising: PPA is uncommon estimated prevalence is conservatively around three cases per , [ 3 , 4 ] , the underlying pathology is heterogeneous and generally inaccessible and the functions principally targeted are uniquely complex.

Although patients with PPA have been described for well over a century [ 5 ], the true significance of these disorders was only appreciated quite recently [ 6 , 7 ] and the paradigm of selective brain network degeneration caused by pathogenic protein spread has transformed our understanding of neurodegenerative disease [ 8 ].

While challenging, accurate clinical diagnosis of PPA is worth striving for: these patients are often affected in late middle life, with devastating implications for family life, work and social functioning. In this review, we outline an approach to the diagnosis and management of PPA in the clinic and at the bedside, distilled from our accumulated experience of meeting and caring for these patients. We then consider these presentations in detail.

These syndromes are distinguished by the language deficits with which they present and associated cognitive, neurological and neuroanatomical profiles and tend to have distinct neuropathological substrates. However, such clinical correspondences are loose, at best. This probably reflects the very different nature of the underlying disease processes, and most pertinently, the distributed neural network basis of PPA [ 10 ].

One important corollary is that PPA syndromes extend cognitively and neuroanatomically beyond the province of language, to involve other complex behavioural functions. The clinical challenges posed by PPA foreshadow significant unresolved issues in the nosology and neurobiology of these conditions [ 1 , 2 , 10 — 16 ]. After outlining principles of management of PPA, we conclude with a prospect for future developments.

Summary of key language features and cognitive, neurological, neuroanatomical and neuropathological associations in syndromes of primary progressive aphasia. The Table presents the major canonical syndromes of progressive aphasia, as recognised in current consensus diagnostic criteria see Table S1 and other less common variants and atypical syndromes that are also represented in most clinics seeing patients with progressive aphasia numbers in brackets designate primary references.

Language features refer to functions described in Table 2. A framework for assessment of language functions, directed particularly to progressive aphasias. The Table presents a framework for assessing speech and language functions on history and at the bedside.

For each function, we indicate the primary progressive aphasia syndromes that characteristically affect that function see Table 1 and examples of tests that might be used by a neuropsychologist to quantify the deficit; these are however not exhaustive and a number of additional tests are in widespread use, tailored to the disease stage and level of deficit.

Neuroanatomical and cognitive profiles of the canonical syndromes of progressive aphasia. The top panels present coronal T1-weighted brain MRI sections in radiological convention, with the left hemisphere on the right of patients with typical syndromes of nonfluent—agrammatic variant primary progressive aphasia nfvPPA , showing asymmetric predominantly left sided inferior frontal, insular and anterior—superior temporal gyrus atrophy; semantic variant primary progressive aphasia svPPA , showing asymmetric predominantly left sided anterior inferior and mesial temporal lobe atrophy; and logopenic variant primary progressive aphasia lvPPA , showing atrophy predominantly involving left temporo-parietal junction posterior—superior temporal and inferior parietal cortices.

Example of a picture that can be used to elicit conversational speech reproduced with permission of Professor EK Warrington. Examples of spoken and written language output in patients with canonical syndromes of primary progressive aphasia. These language samples were all derived from different individuals. The patients representing other syndromes here illustrate analogous deficits of spoken and written language output. The agrammatic nfvPPA cases show impaired structuring of verbal messages, with disordered sentence syntax and verb morphology and poverty of function words.

The svPPA cases illustrate impoverished message content, with a relative dearth of specific, lower frequency vocabulary particularly nouns , circumlocutions and surface dysgraphic errors underlined , despite intact verbal structure syllables and sentences. The lvPPA cases show marked word retrieval difficulty impaired message content reflected in prolonged pauses when speaking and trailing off of written sentences and in addition, incorrect syllable selection impaired message structure; underlined despite intact sentence construction; the speech sample of the lvPPA case here illustrates the challenge of reliably assessing spoken grammar in the setting of severe word-finding difficulty.

This Table presents some clinical observations that are not currently emphasised in standard diagnostic formulations but which we have found useful in the bedside diagnosis of the major syndromes of primary progressive aphasia. Neuropsychological assessment where available is used both to support and quantify the clinical impression and to reveal additional cognitive deficits that may not be emphasised in the clinic but define the overall syndrome see Fig.

Ancillary investigations such as CSF examination are used to stratify pathologies within particular syndromes e. When confronted by an aphasic patient, it is important firstly to establish the context of the language disturbance.

This usually requires the help of an informant who knows the patient well and can supply reliable background information. A diagnosis of PPA requires that speech or language dysfunction was the initial and most salient clinical complaint see Table S1. It is also necessary to determine the extent of any uncorrected peripheral hearing or visual impairments as these can impact significantly on everyday communication and performance on language tests.

The length of the history bears strongly on the interpretation of deficits, since PPA syndromes tend to converge over time [ 17 ]. In PPA, a history of gradual, but unrelenting decline over a number of months or several years is typical, but some apparent fluctuation is not uncommon, particularly under conditions that stress the language system, such as public speaking or conversations by telephone or in a non-native tongue.

Fundamentally, language supports communication—the understanding, creation and delivery of messages. Similarly, in assessing understanding of language, it is useful to analyse the separable stages at which messages are perceived and then invested with meaning.

These operations are differentially vulnerable to particular PPA syndromes and can be explored using targeted questions on history and a small set of core language tests Table 2. In neurology, the history generally suggests the diagnosis while the examination corroborates the historical suspicion.

This precept is equally valid for language disorders, with the caveat that certain aspects of language are difficult to differentiate on the story alone. One key example not often called upon in everyday communication is the ability to repeat messages verbatim, which is central to the characterisation of PPA see Table 1 and should be examined explicitly. Like the testing of pupillary and spinal reflexes in general neurology, certain language tests such as speech repetition or picture naming rapidly assay a number of connected neural operations: if such tests are performed normally, this demonstrates the overall integrity of the system but if a problem is found, it is necessary to establish where in the system it lies.

The most important principle in examining speech is to obtain an adequate sample; for this purpose, it is convenient to carry a picture that will encourage the patient to talk and provide a prop for directed tests one example is shown in Fig.

Alongside the core clinical tests in Table 2 we list some more formal equivalents that might be administered by a neuropsychologist. However, neuropsychological assessment does not simply endorse the bedside impression. If available, it adds considerable value, particularly in quantifying language capacities in relation to standardised population norms and in the context of estimated premorbid ability, in tracking change in language functions over time and in measuring associated capacities that together with aphasia define the overall cognitive phenotype and may also affect the assessment of language.

Patients with nfvPPA present with slow, effortful, hesitant and distorted speech Table 3 ; Supplementary sound files 1 and 2. Words tend to be missed out and conversation is sometimes strikingly telegraphic; errors of grammar mainly affecting syntax, function words such as articles and conjunctions and verb usage typically emerge and sometimes dominate the presentation [ 11 , 18 ].

Inability to understand more complex conversations or instructions may signify impaired comprehension of sentences, which is generally integral to any grammatical deficit [ 19 ]. Speech is usually very much more affected than written communication at the outset and patients tend to resort increasingly to nonverbal means of expression, manifestly frustrated by their inability to communicate.

On examination, there is usually marked difficulty producing polysyllabic words and sequences of syllables e. This can be brought out by asking the patient to repeat longer words or read aloud. These arise at different stages during message production but often defy explicit categorisation in the clinic and the distinction is seldom of practical importance.

The clinical spectrum of nfvPPA is the most diverse of the canonical PPA syndromes, with a number of variant sub-syndromes see Table 1. While apraxia of speech may indeed be relatively pure at presentation [ 11 ], in our experience most of these patients do in time develop aphasia, initially detected on detailed neuropsychological assessment. These brain regions play fundamental roles in language output, motor speech programming and sentence processing [ 10 ].

Atrophy is generally best appreciated as widening of the left Sylvian fissure on a T1-weighted coronal MRI scan [ 24 ]. Moreover, rotated slices may simulate asymmetry; scrolling through a number of slices is useful to check that the direction of any apparent asymmetry is consistent and therefore real.

A neuroradiological phenotype of homologous right-sided peri-Sylvian atrophy is recognised, though its clinical correlates remain ill-defined [ 26 , 27 ]; several of our patients with this finding have had notable central nonverbal auditory deficits or dysprosody [ 28 ]. General intellect is often remarkably well preserved, though a degree of executive dysfunction is usual and may be accompanied behaviourally by apathy or impulsivity [ 29 , 30 ]. Depression can be significant, particularly as insight is usually retained.

The pathological associations of nfvPPA are in keeping with the clinical spectrum more heterogeneous than other PPA syndromes. A majority of patients will have a tauopathy such as progressive supranuclear palsy or corticobasal degeneration at post-mortem though a substantial and still uncertain minority represent TDP or Alzheimer pathology [ 3 , 12 , 33 — 35 ]. While there are currently few reliable predictors of underlying pathology in individual patients [ 36 ], prominent apraxia of speech and parkinsonism are more closely associated with tauopathy than with TDP pathology [ 12 , 35 ].

Causative mutations in all major GRN, MAPT, C9orf72 genes causing frontotemporal dementia have been identified and at least some of these genetic forms may prove clinically distinct with more detailed phenotyping [ 11 ]. In striking contrast to nfvPPA, patients with svPPA exhibit well structured, well articulated language that is relentlessly bereft of substance Table 3 ; Supplementary sound file 3.

Blunting of verbal nuance in svPPA may predate diagnosis by many years [ 38 ]. The language deficit in svPPA is fundamentally associated with loss of meaning about objects and people. While language impairment usually leads the presentation, deficits of nonverbal knowledge inevitably appear later in the course and ultimately blight all sensory channels [ 39 — 42 ].

More rarely, patients present with inability to recognise objects visual agnosia or familiar people prosopagnosia by sight. Earlier in the course of the illness, the conversation of patients with svPPA is easily passed as normal by the casual listener, due to its well preserved surface structure and fluency, even garrulousness [ 11 ]. However, closer attention generally reveals severe anomia. Because anomia is a common feature of a number of aphasias, it is important to distinguish carefully those cases for example, in svPPA where this follows degradation of the word store primary semantic impairment from the more usual scenario, in which retrieval of words from storage is principally affected.

It is failure to comprehend or recognise words and objects rather than anomia per se that defines a semantic deficit. Impaired comprehension of single words in svPPA can be demonstrated by asking the patient to describe an item nominated by the examiner or to select it from an array or scene see Fig.

Assessment of other language channels corroborates the semantic deficit. Across verbal and nonverbal semantic domains, loss of meaning in svPPA follows a stereotyped pattern. These features of svPPA have informed neural computational models of the underlying cognitive architecture of semantic memory and its breakdown [ 46 , 47 ]. On neuroimaging, svPPA has a hallmark pattern of asymmetric, focal cerebral atrophy chiefly involving the dominant anteroinferior and mesial temporal lobe, including amygdala and anterior hippocampus [ 9 , 48 ].

For unknown reasons, these cases are rarer than their leftward-asymmetric counterparts and usually present with profound disturbances of social and emotional behaviour or prosopagnosia, indicating the breakdown of knowledge about people [ 51 , 52 ]. A behavioural syndrome similar to that defining the behavioural variant of frontotemporal dementia characteristically develops in svPPA and indeed, these syndromes can occasionally be difficult to distinguish, even after a careful history.

Initially, behavioural features in svPPA may be quite subtle, but tend to manifest earlier and more floridly in patients with more marked right non-dominant temporal lobe involvement and become universal as the march of disease involves the frontotemporal networks that regulate social responsiveness [ 39 , 47 ].

Symptoms such as absent or misplaced empathy, social disinhibition and faux pas, a more fatuous sense of humour and pathological sweet tooth are common in both svPPA and behavioural variant frontotemporal dementia [ 29 , 53 — 57 ]. An impoverished concept of self due to diminished awareness of bodily signals may contribute to reduced empathy and an increased rate of suicidality in svPPA relative to other neurodegenerative syndromes [ 61 , 62 ].

Insight and awareness of deficits often appear to be retained, but may be superficial or incomplete. In contrast to nfvPPA, associated neurological signs are not typically found in svPPA, though parkinsonian or motor neuron features may develop later in the course [ 31 , 63 ]. Completing the picture of a highly coherent clinical, anatomical and pathological syndrome, most cases of svPPA have TDP type C pathology at post-mortem [ 12 , 33 , 35 ].

Most cases are sporadic though occasional pathogenic mutations are reported [ 4 ] and may be relatively more likely if motor features are present e. The most recently described of the major PPA syndromes is in more than one sense the most problematic.

 
 

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